The process of scientific research has been considered a difficult task, limited to laboratory area and restricted to professionals, expertise in scientific field. Hernández Sampieri, R., Fernández Collado, C. and Baptista Lucio, P. (2006) agree that although methodology research appears as complex and isolated from daily life, it is strongly related to everyday events in any area of human interest.
New knowledge generated in different sciences and disciplines has been the result of carrying out scientific research studies, which involve three different models of design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed. Hernández Sampieri et al (2006) contend that “the choice of any of these methods does not seem to be relevant as long as researchers keep an ethical attitude in their search of the truth” (prologue section, p. xliv).
This manual-style book is intended for professional researchers, teachers, instructors and university students. It presents four sections: the first one states the backgrounds of scientific research; the second, the process of quantitative research; the third relates to qualitative research and the last one compiles the mixed method. Especially interesting are the extra resources: a CD and the Online Learning Center (OLC) for students and instructors.
The authors’ goal is to demystify the methodology of scientific research, since “any human being can do research work, and do it well, if the corresponding process of research is applied” (Hernández Sampieri et al., 2006, prologue section, p. xxxvii) and to discover new facts: “Research is very useful for different aims: to create new systems and products, to solve economic and social problems (. . .)” (prologue section, p. xxxviii).
A noteworthy feature is the clarity of presentation of the topics in the book. In fact, this is one of its major strengths: each chapter contains a conceptual map, a list of objectives to pursue, a synthesis, a theme development, a summary and opinions of different researchers. Hence, the information presented in the book shows a match between unit aims and authors’ goals. Unity is achieved via thematic cohesion and coherence among units.
From the point of view of classroom use, particularly useful is the practice section at the end of each unit, the CD contains the key to exercises. Teachers and instructors can use these segments to assess students, to encourage self evaluation and foster independent learning. In addition, students can use these samples of steps in methodological research to improve and consolidate their knowledge.
Broad focus could be a shortcoming of this book. Some learners may have extreme difficulty in getting the most of it. Though the vocabulary is easy to understand, some key concepts require a high level of theoretical knowledge from hard subjects like Mathematics and Statistics; i.e. chapters about data collection, analysis in the quantitative model. Students with Humanistic formation would probably struggle to cope with the demands of research study.
The complexity of the CD software in the CD might arouse problems. Many more than standard levels of computing skills are required to use it. A paper guide could help readers/users overcome skills limitations. Finally, the little expansion of the mixed model, which is the most popular among researchers, creates a hindrance. It would have been more practical if the authors had included more information about it.
To conclude, in this preliminary study, Hernández Sampieri et al. (2006) introduce readers in the challenging field of scientific discovery. In all, this book could be recommended to teachers and college/university students in search of professional growth and achievement of academic standards. Metodologia de la investigacion is an internationally renowned guide which contains a wide variety of items in relation to scientific study.
Reference
Hernández Sampieri, R., Fernández Collado, C. & Baptista Lucio, P. (2006). Metodología de la investigación (4th ed.). México, D. F.: Mc Graw Hill Interamericana.
Feb 17, 2010
Scientific approach provides practical uses
Flanagan, J. (1954).The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51(4).
Retrieved September 19, 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
This research-based journal article focuses on a method named the critical incident technique. The main titles refer to background and early developmental studies at the American Institute for Research, studies carried out at the University of Pittsburgh, the procedure in its present form, and uses of the critical incident technique, summary and conclusions. The article is intended for researchers in areas of psychology.
Flanagan (1954) observes “that critical incidents represent only raw data and do not automatically provide solutions to problems” (para.3). However, research findings conclude that they can solve problems in almost any field.
In conclusion, the author proposes that this method, based on empirical observation of negative events, is a flexible tool that can fit any situation in particular, thus allowing all-purpose applications.
Retrieved September 19, 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
This research-based journal article focuses on a method named the critical incident technique. The main titles refer to background and early developmental studies at the American Institute for Research, studies carried out at the University of Pittsburgh, the procedure in its present form, and uses of the critical incident technique, summary and conclusions. The article is intended for researchers in areas of psychology.
Flanagan (1954) observes “that critical incidents represent only raw data and do not automatically provide solutions to problems” (para.3). However, research findings conclude that they can solve problems in almost any field.
In conclusion, the author proposes that this method, based on empirical observation of negative events, is a flexible tool that can fit any situation in particular, thus allowing all-purpose applications.
Writing academic texts in second language
Myles (2002) explores the process of composing academic texts in second language. In general, the study presents an examination of basic features of second language writing, an analysis of writing errors and the role of writing instructors in the development of literacy skills in second language learners. The article focuses on intertwined aspects of writing in second language in an academic audience-oriented context.
In particular, Myles (2002) draws a distinction between the development of skills to compose texts efficiently in first language and the demands to write well in the second language. In most cases, non native students trying to pursue western standard goals in academic literacy face a double problem: schemata of knowledge -rhetoric issues- and multiple social factors that motivate integration to a discourse community; i.e. job needs.
For this reason, appropriate knowledge of the western discourse community seems to be crucial for effective composing and particular conventions that regulate the organization of academic texts are to be respected. Indeed, on analyzing Myles’ (2002) paper, readers will find elements of certain aspects in connection to discourse requirements.
A typical example of this issue is the use of introductory phrases that appear in the first sentence in an academic summary. Similarly to in-text-citations, introductory phrases mention the source of information and the date; the first paragraph includes the name of the author, year of publication and the main idea (Pintos, 2008b); i.e. “The Flower and Hayes (1980, 1981) model focuses on what writers do when they compose” (Myles, 2002, p. 3).
Ellipsis signal the partial omission of a sentence or more in a paragraph, with three dots (Pintos, 2008b); i.e. “students' strategic knowledge and the ability of students to transform information . . . to meet rhetorically constrained purposes" (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996, p. 116, as cited in Myles, 2002, p. 3). This sentence provides an example of direct quotation, using the author’s exact words from the original text within quotation marks (Pintos, 2008a).
Equally important is the use of insertion of a letter, between square brackets, to show a change in a word that belongs to a direct quote (Pintos, 2008b); i.e. “[A]lthough we should not cripple our students' interest in writing (…)” (Yau, 1991, p. 268, as cited in Myles, 2002, p. 14). In this example, the upper-case letter marks the difference from the original source (Pintos, 2008b).
Finally, to introduce another voice in an academic text, so as to make the reading compelling, special attention should be paid to the choice of reporting verbs such as argue, state, propose, claim; i.e. “Schumann (1998) argues (. . . ). He states that (. . .)” (Myles, 2002, p. 7); “Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) also propose (. . .)” (Myles, 2002, p. 3); “Behaviorist accounts claim that (. . .)” (Myles, 2002, p. 8).
Furthermore, Myles (2002) discusses factors in relation to writing errors; social factors are what motivate students to learn a second language. And they can be used by writing instructors to promote proficiency. For example, English for Academic Purpose (EAP) students that “have a desire to achieve their professional goals (. . .) can become more proficient in their ability to write in English (. . .)” (Myles, 2002, p. 5).
Cognitive factors refer to knowledge acquisition; i.e. vocabulary, style, how information is structured -schemata of knowledge-, use of strategies and the influence of language transfer (Myles, 2002). Whereas some theorists view language transfer “as a resource that the learner actively draws upon in interlanguage development” (Selinker, 1972, as cited in Myles, 2002, p. 8), others disagree and consider transfer as problematic.
According to Myles (2002), “Anderson’s (1985) model of language production” (p. 7) comprises three spiraled stages: construction, transformation and production of the text. In all, errors in second language writing emerge due to the operation of many non overt internal factors that affect second language students. Myles (2002) contends that schemata for language literacy respond to exclusive socio-political contexts of a discourse community.
Moreover, Myles (2002) discusses teacher’s part in the process of second language writing in connection to language proficiency, modeling, self-evaluation, feedback and confidence. Considering the attainment of clear standards, Myles (2002) suggests that as learner’s production “vary in the ultimate level of proficiency they achieve, with many failing to reach the target- language competence” (p. 11), this matter should be considered.
Besides, Myles (2002) supports written modeling in the target language as a form to reinforce input of the target language. Another strategy proposed is the use of prompts and student self-evaluation (Cumming, 1995, cited in Myles, 2002). On balance, students’ response to teachers’ intervention, whether they feel confident and motivated to express themselves, clearly influences writing in a second language.
To conclude, Myles’s study (2002) goes beyond the domain of text composing in second language, exploring how the articulation of skills developed for the first language shape the cognitive development of second language abilities. Non native students undergo a process of meta-cognitive transformation to deal successfully with academic standards and to be active part of a discourse community.
References
Myles, J. (2002). Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Students Texts. TESEL-EJ, 6 (2). Retrieved September 10, 2009, from http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESl-EJ/ej22/a1.html
Pintos, V. (2008a). Unit 2: Personal narratives in teaching. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved August 29, 2009, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/modresource/view.php?id=2724
Pintos, V. (2008b). Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725
In particular, Myles (2002) draws a distinction between the development of skills to compose texts efficiently in first language and the demands to write well in the second language. In most cases, non native students trying to pursue western standard goals in academic literacy face a double problem: schemata of knowledge -rhetoric issues- and multiple social factors that motivate integration to a discourse community; i.e. job needs.
For this reason, appropriate knowledge of the western discourse community seems to be crucial for effective composing and particular conventions that regulate the organization of academic texts are to be respected. Indeed, on analyzing Myles’ (2002) paper, readers will find elements of certain aspects in connection to discourse requirements.
A typical example of this issue is the use of introductory phrases that appear in the first sentence in an academic summary. Similarly to in-text-citations, introductory phrases mention the source of information and the date; the first paragraph includes the name of the author, year of publication and the main idea (Pintos, 2008b); i.e. “The Flower and Hayes (1980, 1981) model focuses on what writers do when they compose” (Myles, 2002, p. 3).
Ellipsis signal the partial omission of a sentence or more in a paragraph, with three dots (Pintos, 2008b); i.e. “students' strategic knowledge and the ability of students to transform information . . . to meet rhetorically constrained purposes" (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996, p. 116, as cited in Myles, 2002, p. 3). This sentence provides an example of direct quotation, using the author’s exact words from the original text within quotation marks (Pintos, 2008a).
Equally important is the use of insertion of a letter, between square brackets, to show a change in a word that belongs to a direct quote (Pintos, 2008b); i.e. “[A]lthough we should not cripple our students' interest in writing (…)” (Yau, 1991, p. 268, as cited in Myles, 2002, p. 14). In this example, the upper-case letter marks the difference from the original source (Pintos, 2008b).
Finally, to introduce another voice in an academic text, so as to make the reading compelling, special attention should be paid to the choice of reporting verbs such as argue, state, propose, claim; i.e. “Schumann (1998) argues (. . . ). He states that (. . .)” (Myles, 2002, p. 7); “Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) also propose (. . .)” (Myles, 2002, p. 3); “Behaviorist accounts claim that (. . .)” (Myles, 2002, p. 8).
Furthermore, Myles (2002) discusses factors in relation to writing errors; social factors are what motivate students to learn a second language. And they can be used by writing instructors to promote proficiency. For example, English for Academic Purpose (EAP) students that “have a desire to achieve their professional goals (. . .) can become more proficient in their ability to write in English (. . .)” (Myles, 2002, p. 5).
Cognitive factors refer to knowledge acquisition; i.e. vocabulary, style, how information is structured -schemata of knowledge-, use of strategies and the influence of language transfer (Myles, 2002). Whereas some theorists view language transfer “as a resource that the learner actively draws upon in interlanguage development” (Selinker, 1972, as cited in Myles, 2002, p. 8), others disagree and consider transfer as problematic.
According to Myles (2002), “Anderson’s (1985) model of language production” (p. 7) comprises three spiraled stages: construction, transformation and production of the text. In all, errors in second language writing emerge due to the operation of many non overt internal factors that affect second language students. Myles (2002) contends that schemata for language literacy respond to exclusive socio-political contexts of a discourse community.
Moreover, Myles (2002) discusses teacher’s part in the process of second language writing in connection to language proficiency, modeling, self-evaluation, feedback and confidence. Considering the attainment of clear standards, Myles (2002) suggests that as learner’s production “vary in the ultimate level of proficiency they achieve, with many failing to reach the target- language competence” (p. 11), this matter should be considered.
Besides, Myles (2002) supports written modeling in the target language as a form to reinforce input of the target language. Another strategy proposed is the use of prompts and student self-evaluation (Cumming, 1995, cited in Myles, 2002). On balance, students’ response to teachers’ intervention, whether they feel confident and motivated to express themselves, clearly influences writing in a second language.
To conclude, Myles’s study (2002) goes beyond the domain of text composing in second language, exploring how the articulation of skills developed for the first language shape the cognitive development of second language abilities. Non native students undergo a process of meta-cognitive transformation to deal successfully with academic standards and to be active part of a discourse community.
References
Myles, J. (2002). Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Students Texts. TESEL-EJ, 6 (2). Retrieved September 10, 2009, from http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESl-EJ/ej22/a1.html
Pintos, V. (2008a). Unit 2: Personal narratives in teaching. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved August 29, 2009, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/modresource/view.php?id=2724
Pintos, V. (2008b). Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725
Summary composing: aims and features
Reid’s book “The process of paragraph writing” (1994, as cited in Pintos, 2008) describes the major points about writing academic summaries. Among other issues, she presented a list of elements that contribute to compose effective academic texts. In this description, main factors such as key features, text organization and purpose are discussed.
To begin with, a summary gives a brief account of relevant facts about a certain issue; this written report requires clarity of presentation as well as avoidance of repetition. In a coherent piece of writing, there are no confusing or incomplete points.
For example, inadequate use of transitional expressions may hinder logical connections between ideas and the reader would not be able to follow the author’s train of thought. This is what composing implies: coherence and cohesion of ideas.
It has a two-role function: knowledge telling and knowledge transforming (Pintos, 2008). So, writing to convey generation of knowledge and/or thought is one of the requirements of disciplinary fields (Pintos, 2008).
Secondly, there are certain discourse conventions that structure academic texts. Summaries have a three-part component: an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Each of them made of well-organized paragraphs.
Paragraphs should contain a topic sentence (stating the controlling idea) and supporting sentences (that provide additional facts). In a summary, the introduction provides information about the author, date, type/ title of the text (source) and the main idea of the topic.
The body develops the main ideas in an orderly way. Concluding discourse markers neatly define the final paragraph, which summarizes the content of the body. It is advisable that the writer’s opinion is not included in the text.
On balance, awareness of academic discourse “may help diminish the negative effects of lack of knowledge of appropriate text structures (…)” (Morra de de la Peña, 1995, p.51, as cited in Pintos, 2008).
Thirdly, purpose in summary varies according to the type of text. There are different types of summaries: outlines, abstracts, comparative summaries, précis, private material summaries and academic summaries (Reid, 1994; Swales & Feak, 1994, as cited in Pintos, 2008).
Since academic summaries express understanding about a certain topic in order to construct knowledge, achievement of this goal requires expert domain of discourse skills. Moreover, analysis of an academic summary reveals the student’s level of expertise in composing. Furthermore, composing is the key to succeed in conveying ideas by means of presenting, arguing and supporting information (Reid, 2001, as cited in Pintos, 2008). It is a skill that requires constant training and development.
In conclusion, writing academic summaries imply a high level of academic competence. Since this can only be achieved within a discourse community writers should integrate to it and socialize with other members to fulfill the purpose of writing.
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725
To begin with, a summary gives a brief account of relevant facts about a certain issue; this written report requires clarity of presentation as well as avoidance of repetition. In a coherent piece of writing, there are no confusing or incomplete points.
For example, inadequate use of transitional expressions may hinder logical connections between ideas and the reader would not be able to follow the author’s train of thought. This is what composing implies: coherence and cohesion of ideas.
It has a two-role function: knowledge telling and knowledge transforming (Pintos, 2008). So, writing to convey generation of knowledge and/or thought is one of the requirements of disciplinary fields (Pintos, 2008).
Secondly, there are certain discourse conventions that structure academic texts. Summaries have a three-part component: an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Each of them made of well-organized paragraphs.
Paragraphs should contain a topic sentence (stating the controlling idea) and supporting sentences (that provide additional facts). In a summary, the introduction provides information about the author, date, type/ title of the text (source) and the main idea of the topic.
The body develops the main ideas in an orderly way. Concluding discourse markers neatly define the final paragraph, which summarizes the content of the body. It is advisable that the writer’s opinion is not included in the text.
On balance, awareness of academic discourse “may help diminish the negative effects of lack of knowledge of appropriate text structures (…)” (Morra de de la Peña, 1995, p.51, as cited in Pintos, 2008).
Thirdly, purpose in summary varies according to the type of text. There are different types of summaries: outlines, abstracts, comparative summaries, précis, private material summaries and academic summaries (Reid, 1994; Swales & Feak, 1994, as cited in Pintos, 2008).
Since academic summaries express understanding about a certain topic in order to construct knowledge, achievement of this goal requires expert domain of discourse skills. Moreover, analysis of an academic summary reveals the student’s level of expertise in composing. Furthermore, composing is the key to succeed in conveying ideas by means of presenting, arguing and supporting information (Reid, 2001, as cited in Pintos, 2008). It is a skill that requires constant training and development.
In conclusion, writing academic summaries imply a high level of academic competence. Since this can only be achieved within a discourse community writers should integrate to it and socialize with other members to fulfill the purpose of writing.
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725
Feb 16, 2010
A farewell speech
In 2005, Jobs, the Chief Executive Officer of Apple Computer and of Pixar Animation Studios, delivered the Commencement address at Stanford University. The three-part speech explained the story of his success. Basically, he acquainted the audience with the particulars of his college life. He revealed that finding what he loved propelled him to start over when he faced loss. Yet, a serious disease and closeness to death may become practical tools to improve quality of life. To conclude, the speech ended with a particular expression of goodwill at parting: “Stay hungry. Stay foolish” (Jobs, 2005).
Reference
Jobs, S. (2005) Find what you love. Commencement address [Video file]. Stanford University. Retrieved September 19, 2009, from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1R-jKKp3NA
Reference
Jobs, S. (2005) Find what you love. Commencement address [Video file]. Stanford University. Retrieved September 19, 2009, from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1R-jKKp3NA
News in the area of teacher formation
In general, teacher educational colleges afford students with a solid formation concerning theoretical aspects of the knowledge of a subject; though other components of the course like classroom management matters –how student teachers deal with the daily teaching practice- are sometimes disregarded.
In my experience as a teacher, I must admit that I have not received enough training to be prepared to handle or even, foresee problematic situations in the classroom. The mismatch between what I have been told and what I encountered at school promoted a clear divide between theory and practice.
I vividly remember the good old days at college. With practices that flowed smoothly mainly because the group of fifth graders assigned to me were accustomed to student-teachers converging from colleges all over downtown. Those children extraordinarily contributed to make my stay great and nice to recall.
But after graduating, the ideals of a dream class vanished abruptly. Once I entered the true school world, difficulties arose. Poor classroom management and inadequate strategies to handle a group of standard scholars were my weak points. And learning through hard experience was what finally afforded me knowledge.
Yet, pioneer concern on high quality education in teacher formation and exploration of new methods are gaining field in the educational scene. The findings of critical incidents research work -analysis of negative events and further applications- propose solutions and prevent problems in classroom contexts.
Fernández and Fernandez (1994, cited in Fernández González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N. and Medina Pérez, M., 2003) highlighted the benefits of the adoption of this method since it allows the analysis of problematic situations in the classroom, within a controlled and secure atmosphere, like in a laboratory.
Issues like situation-context, incident version, factors, causes and possible solutions were evaluated. The study report aimed to foster reflection upon teaching practices, classroom incidents and awareness of the potential advantages that the application of this technique could bring about in the area of education.
Professional growth is another important issue to be considered. I agree that teachers need to learn more so as to sharpen their skills and improve their performance. Learning is a never ending process, thus, I have committed myself to get a university degree. I believe that this will favor my teaching practice greatly.
Though even nowadays, there seems to be a general consensus to restrain teaching to the traditional idea that to teach is only necessary to know the subject well (Gil, 1991, Torre, 1997, cited Fernandez Gonzalez et al, 2003). More often, the assumption that once a novel teacher graduates learning is over remains.
However, some authors like Tejada (2000, cited in Fernandez Gonzalez et al, 2003) point out the relevance of creating awareness of the demand of a new profile of teachers. The new requirements will involve: observation skills, self-reflection and being able to make suitable rapid decisions when in trouble.
All this can be safely achieved through effective training; today’s classroom reality suggests that teachers should be equipped with more than formal knowledge of a subject. At this respect, teachers –from all areas, gender and age- should give more attention to professional integrative development.
In conclusion, I welcome the possibility of implementing the critical incident technique in the formation of novel teachers, even in the updating of the old ones. Its potential benefits would reach the whole scholar community –teachers, students, parents, helping to bridge gaps and to achieve better results in the teaching-learning process.
Reference
Fernández González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N., Medina Pérez, M. (2003) Los incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del Profesorado de Secundaria en Ciencias de la Naturaleza. Revista Universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17(1), 101-112. Universidad de Zaragoza: Zaragoza, España. Retrieved August 22, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/index.php?id=54
In my experience as a teacher, I must admit that I have not received enough training to be prepared to handle or even, foresee problematic situations in the classroom. The mismatch between what I have been told and what I encountered at school promoted a clear divide between theory and practice.
I vividly remember the good old days at college. With practices that flowed smoothly mainly because the group of fifth graders assigned to me were accustomed to student-teachers converging from colleges all over downtown. Those children extraordinarily contributed to make my stay great and nice to recall.
But after graduating, the ideals of a dream class vanished abruptly. Once I entered the true school world, difficulties arose. Poor classroom management and inadequate strategies to handle a group of standard scholars were my weak points. And learning through hard experience was what finally afforded me knowledge.
Yet, pioneer concern on high quality education in teacher formation and exploration of new methods are gaining field in the educational scene. The findings of critical incidents research work -analysis of negative events and further applications- propose solutions and prevent problems in classroom contexts.
Fernández and Fernandez (1994, cited in Fernández González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N. and Medina Pérez, M., 2003) highlighted the benefits of the adoption of this method since it allows the analysis of problematic situations in the classroom, within a controlled and secure atmosphere, like in a laboratory.
Issues like situation-context, incident version, factors, causes and possible solutions were evaluated. The study report aimed to foster reflection upon teaching practices, classroom incidents and awareness of the potential advantages that the application of this technique could bring about in the area of education.
Professional growth is another important issue to be considered. I agree that teachers need to learn more so as to sharpen their skills and improve their performance. Learning is a never ending process, thus, I have committed myself to get a university degree. I believe that this will favor my teaching practice greatly.
Though even nowadays, there seems to be a general consensus to restrain teaching to the traditional idea that to teach is only necessary to know the subject well (Gil, 1991, Torre, 1997, cited Fernandez Gonzalez et al, 2003). More often, the assumption that once a novel teacher graduates learning is over remains.
However, some authors like Tejada (2000, cited in Fernandez Gonzalez et al, 2003) point out the relevance of creating awareness of the demand of a new profile of teachers. The new requirements will involve: observation skills, self-reflection and being able to make suitable rapid decisions when in trouble.
All this can be safely achieved through effective training; today’s classroom reality suggests that teachers should be equipped with more than formal knowledge of a subject. At this respect, teachers –from all areas, gender and age- should give more attention to professional integrative development.
In conclusion, I welcome the possibility of implementing the critical incident technique in the formation of novel teachers, even in the updating of the old ones. Its potential benefits would reach the whole scholar community –teachers, students, parents, helping to bridge gaps and to achieve better results in the teaching-learning process.
Reference
Fernández González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N., Medina Pérez, M. (2003) Los incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del Profesorado de Secundaria en Ciencias de la Naturaleza. Revista Universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17(1), 101-112. Universidad de Zaragoza: Zaragoza, España. Retrieved August 22, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/index.php?id=54
Feb 13, 2010
Critical incidents: description and possible applications in education
The critical incident technique (Flanagan, 1954) involves a method of gathering empiric information about certain human behavior. The procedure requires data collection of relevant events, in given conditions. The study findings may be applied to solve problems in a practical way and even, to nurture large-minded theories in Psychology.
What is an incident? It can be described as any single distinct event performed by human beings. An incident allows further analysis and drawing logical conclusions. Inferences can be made on the basis of empirical evidence (Flanagan, 1954) so that positive or negative effects can be easily predicted in the future which is one of its major contributions.
Because critical incidents demand strict objectivity from the observers, as well as accuracy and precision, judgments should be based on reliable observations of critical incidents without mediation of any kind of personal or emotional influence over the outcome. Flanagan (1954) considers critical incidents as a flexible system plausible of any kind of adaptations.
Formulation of general aims of an activity in order to provide goal-orientation and detailed descriptions of the objectives to pursue is a pre requisite. One of the main issues that involve the formulation of the general aims is to achieve general consensus among the authorities, and even to foster general acceptance of the participants in the activity.
Thus, general aims imply brief explanations, provided by authorities of a field, about something that intends to reach achievement. General aims formulate a functional description of an activity. Therefore, given that, the question is: Who defines the general aim? A group of people who evidence real knowledge of a particular area of study carries out the task.
The following points serve to settle the general aim of an activity: shaping the object of study, defining the purpose of the activity and drawing an outline of the general aim of the activity. Once these requirements have been fulfilled, the next decisive step is to provide the reporting personnel -observers- with precise and detailed instructions.
Next, facts about the group of people to be studied by the observers are reported in the instructions. Given that, critical incidents are regarded as a very effective form of obtaining measurable factual data. The process of data collection demands at least four components that can be summarized as follows:
a) Delimitation of the situation to be analyzed –location, people, conditions and activities;
b) Degree of pertinence of the activity to be observed to the purpose of the general aim;
c) Level of significance of consequences, impact of incident observation over general aim;
d) Selection of the observers considering level of expertise and training;
Four procedures describe data collection (Flanagan, 1954, Collecting the data section, para. 7): interviews, where the observed group receives a brief explanation describing the study process; group interviews, reduces time and costs personnel; questionnaires procedure, with large groups and record forms, which are always written.
On considering the possibility of collecting data in the educational field, the most appropriate procedure to do so would be the record forms (Flanagan, 1954, Collecting the data section, para. 7). In particular, the method variation that comprises a written report of the general standard behaviours in the classroom.
Further discussion of the data collected provides a clear resource: application of the findings to the practical solution of problems. Simple as it may seem, discussion of these issues facilitates the ground for making inferences, comparisons and mainly, increasing the “usefulness of the data” as Flanagan (1954) observed (Analyzing the data section, para. 3).
Areas of application (Flanagan, 1954)
Measures of typical performance (criteria), (Uses of the critical incident technique section, para. 3), which was applied by the American Institute for Research, American military forces, the American Psychological Association , the Educational Research Corporation and the Harvard University Graduate School of Education, American Council on Education.
Measures of proficiency, standard samples, (para. 11), which was sponsored by the National Research Council Committee on Aviation Psychology, United States Air Force and the Civil Aeronautics Administration, the United States Air Force Human Re-sources Research Center, Air Force pilot instructors and the Office of Naval Research.
Personnel: training (para. 18) led mainly by American military forces; selection and classification which was sponsored by the United States Air Force School of Aviation Medicine; job design and purification that was carried out at the American Institute for Research (para. 29) and operating procedures (para. 31).
Equipment design (para. 35) which was conducted by the American Institute for Research. Motivation and leadership, attitudes (para. 39), a study sponsored by the Air Force’s Human Resources Research Center. Counseling and Psychotherapy (para. 42) explored at the University of Pittsburgh.
Equipment design and motivational/leadership studies could be the educational areas that would benefit more from the application of the critical incident technique. The first issue may improve the quality of teaching/learning styles. Educational policymakers should note that teaching material available at schools are not always appropriate or in good conditions.
Considering the area of motivation and leadership in education, the critical incident technique would redefine teacher’s profile; i.e. which are teacher’s motivations? Why teachers complain about school? Do all these factors exert an impact on the quality of education? Is leadership part of the professional development or not? Is management part of professional growth?
In conclusion, the implementation of such a new trend like the critical incident technique arises more questions than answers yet. Little is known about serious educational programs that consider this innovative tool. However, in the light of its potential uses, it is likely that this technique could soon be applied to the educational scene, one of the most relevant fields for human development and growth.
Reference
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51 (4). Retrieved September 19, 2009 from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
What is an incident? It can be described as any single distinct event performed by human beings. An incident allows further analysis and drawing logical conclusions. Inferences can be made on the basis of empirical evidence (Flanagan, 1954) so that positive or negative effects can be easily predicted in the future which is one of its major contributions.
Because critical incidents demand strict objectivity from the observers, as well as accuracy and precision, judgments should be based on reliable observations of critical incidents without mediation of any kind of personal or emotional influence over the outcome. Flanagan (1954) considers critical incidents as a flexible system plausible of any kind of adaptations.
Formulation of general aims of an activity in order to provide goal-orientation and detailed descriptions of the objectives to pursue is a pre requisite. One of the main issues that involve the formulation of the general aims is to achieve general consensus among the authorities, and even to foster general acceptance of the participants in the activity.
Thus, general aims imply brief explanations, provided by authorities of a field, about something that intends to reach achievement. General aims formulate a functional description of an activity. Therefore, given that, the question is: Who defines the general aim? A group of people who evidence real knowledge of a particular area of study carries out the task.
The following points serve to settle the general aim of an activity: shaping the object of study, defining the purpose of the activity and drawing an outline of the general aim of the activity. Once these requirements have been fulfilled, the next decisive step is to provide the reporting personnel -observers- with precise and detailed instructions.
Next, facts about the group of people to be studied by the observers are reported in the instructions. Given that, critical incidents are regarded as a very effective form of obtaining measurable factual data. The process of data collection demands at least four components that can be summarized as follows:
a) Delimitation of the situation to be analyzed –location, people, conditions and activities;
b) Degree of pertinence of the activity to be observed to the purpose of the general aim;
c) Level of significance of consequences, impact of incident observation over general aim;
d) Selection of the observers considering level of expertise and training;
Four procedures describe data collection (Flanagan, 1954, Collecting the data section, para. 7): interviews, where the observed group receives a brief explanation describing the study process; group interviews, reduces time and costs personnel; questionnaires procedure, with large groups and record forms, which are always written.
On considering the possibility of collecting data in the educational field, the most appropriate procedure to do so would be the record forms (Flanagan, 1954, Collecting the data section, para. 7). In particular, the method variation that comprises a written report of the general standard behaviours in the classroom.
Further discussion of the data collected provides a clear resource: application of the findings to the practical solution of problems. Simple as it may seem, discussion of these issues facilitates the ground for making inferences, comparisons and mainly, increasing the “usefulness of the data” as Flanagan (1954) observed (Analyzing the data section, para. 3).
Areas of application (Flanagan, 1954)
Measures of typical performance (criteria), (Uses of the critical incident technique section, para. 3), which was applied by the American Institute for Research, American military forces, the American Psychological Association , the Educational Research Corporation and the Harvard University Graduate School of Education, American Council on Education.
Measures of proficiency, standard samples, (para. 11), which was sponsored by the National Research Council Committee on Aviation Psychology, United States Air Force and the Civil Aeronautics Administration, the United States Air Force Human Re-sources Research Center, Air Force pilot instructors and the Office of Naval Research.
Personnel: training (para. 18) led mainly by American military forces; selection and classification which was sponsored by the United States Air Force School of Aviation Medicine; job design and purification that was carried out at the American Institute for Research (para. 29) and operating procedures (para. 31).
Equipment design (para. 35) which was conducted by the American Institute for Research. Motivation and leadership, attitudes (para. 39), a study sponsored by the Air Force’s Human Resources Research Center. Counseling and Psychotherapy (para. 42) explored at the University of Pittsburgh.
Equipment design and motivational/leadership studies could be the educational areas that would benefit more from the application of the critical incident technique. The first issue may improve the quality of teaching/learning styles. Educational policymakers should note that teaching material available at schools are not always appropriate or in good conditions.
Considering the area of motivation and leadership in education, the critical incident technique would redefine teacher’s profile; i.e. which are teacher’s motivations? Why teachers complain about school? Do all these factors exert an impact on the quality of education? Is leadership part of the professional development or not? Is management part of professional growth?
In conclusion, the implementation of such a new trend like the critical incident technique arises more questions than answers yet. Little is known about serious educational programs that consider this innovative tool. However, in the light of its potential uses, it is likely that this technique could soon be applied to the educational scene, one of the most relevant fields for human development and growth.
Reference
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51 (4). Retrieved September 19, 2009 from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
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