Reid’s book “The process of paragraph writing” (1994, as cited in Pintos, 2008) describes the major points about writing academic summaries. Among other issues, she presented a list of elements that contribute to compose effective academic texts. In this description, main factors such as key features, text organization and purpose are discussed.
To begin with, a summary gives a brief account of relevant facts about a certain issue; this written report requires clarity of presentation as well as avoidance of repetition. In a coherent piece of writing, there are no confusing or incomplete points.
For example, inadequate use of transitional expressions may hinder logical connections between ideas and the reader would not be able to follow the author’s train of thought. This is what composing implies: coherence and cohesion of ideas.
It has a two-role function: knowledge telling and knowledge transforming (Pintos, 2008). So, writing to convey generation of knowledge and/or thought is one of the requirements of disciplinary fields (Pintos, 2008).
Secondly, there are certain discourse conventions that structure academic texts. Summaries have a three-part component: an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Each of them made of well-organized paragraphs.
Paragraphs should contain a topic sentence (stating the controlling idea) and supporting sentences (that provide additional facts). In a summary, the introduction provides information about the author, date, type/ title of the text (source) and the main idea of the topic.
The body develops the main ideas in an orderly way. Concluding discourse markers neatly define the final paragraph, which summarizes the content of the body. It is advisable that the writer’s opinion is not included in the text.
On balance, awareness of academic discourse “may help diminish the negative effects of lack of knowledge of appropriate text structures (…)” (Morra de de la Peña, 1995, p.51, as cited in Pintos, 2008).
Thirdly, purpose in summary varies according to the type of text. There are different types of summaries: outlines, abstracts, comparative summaries, précis, private material summaries and academic summaries (Reid, 1994; Swales & Feak, 1994, as cited in Pintos, 2008).
Since academic summaries express understanding about a certain topic in order to construct knowledge, achievement of this goal requires expert domain of discourse skills. Moreover, analysis of an academic summary reveals the student’s level of expertise in composing. Furthermore, composing is the key to succeed in conveying ideas by means of presenting, arguing and supporting information (Reid, 2001, as cited in Pintos, 2008). It is a skill that requires constant training and development.
In conclusion, writing academic summaries imply a high level of academic competence. Since this can only be achieved within a discourse community writers should integrate to it and socialize with other members to fulfill the purpose of writing.
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725
Feb 17, 2010
Feb 16, 2010
A farewell speech
In 2005, Jobs, the Chief Executive Officer of Apple Computer and of Pixar Animation Studios, delivered the Commencement address at Stanford University. The three-part speech explained the story of his success. Basically, he acquainted the audience with the particulars of his college life. He revealed that finding what he loved propelled him to start over when he faced loss. Yet, a serious disease and closeness to death may become practical tools to improve quality of life. To conclude, the speech ended with a particular expression of goodwill at parting: “Stay hungry. Stay foolish” (Jobs, 2005).
Reference
Jobs, S. (2005) Find what you love. Commencement address [Video file]. Stanford University. Retrieved September 19, 2009, from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1R-jKKp3NA
Reference
Jobs, S. (2005) Find what you love. Commencement address [Video file]. Stanford University. Retrieved September 19, 2009, from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1R-jKKp3NA
News in the area of teacher formation
In general, teacher educational colleges afford students with a solid formation concerning theoretical aspects of the knowledge of a subject; though other components of the course like classroom management matters –how student teachers deal with the daily teaching practice- are sometimes disregarded.
In my experience as a teacher, I must admit that I have not received enough training to be prepared to handle or even, foresee problematic situations in the classroom. The mismatch between what I have been told and what I encountered at school promoted a clear divide between theory and practice.
I vividly remember the good old days at college. With practices that flowed smoothly mainly because the group of fifth graders assigned to me were accustomed to student-teachers converging from colleges all over downtown. Those children extraordinarily contributed to make my stay great and nice to recall.
But after graduating, the ideals of a dream class vanished abruptly. Once I entered the true school world, difficulties arose. Poor classroom management and inadequate strategies to handle a group of standard scholars were my weak points. And learning through hard experience was what finally afforded me knowledge.
Yet, pioneer concern on high quality education in teacher formation and exploration of new methods are gaining field in the educational scene. The findings of critical incidents research work -analysis of negative events and further applications- propose solutions and prevent problems in classroom contexts.
Fernández and Fernandez (1994, cited in Fernández González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N. and Medina Pérez, M., 2003) highlighted the benefits of the adoption of this method since it allows the analysis of problematic situations in the classroom, within a controlled and secure atmosphere, like in a laboratory.
Issues like situation-context, incident version, factors, causes and possible solutions were evaluated. The study report aimed to foster reflection upon teaching practices, classroom incidents and awareness of the potential advantages that the application of this technique could bring about in the area of education.
Professional growth is another important issue to be considered. I agree that teachers need to learn more so as to sharpen their skills and improve their performance. Learning is a never ending process, thus, I have committed myself to get a university degree. I believe that this will favor my teaching practice greatly.
Though even nowadays, there seems to be a general consensus to restrain teaching to the traditional idea that to teach is only necessary to know the subject well (Gil, 1991, Torre, 1997, cited Fernandez Gonzalez et al, 2003). More often, the assumption that once a novel teacher graduates learning is over remains.
However, some authors like Tejada (2000, cited in Fernandez Gonzalez et al, 2003) point out the relevance of creating awareness of the demand of a new profile of teachers. The new requirements will involve: observation skills, self-reflection and being able to make suitable rapid decisions when in trouble.
All this can be safely achieved through effective training; today’s classroom reality suggests that teachers should be equipped with more than formal knowledge of a subject. At this respect, teachers –from all areas, gender and age- should give more attention to professional integrative development.
In conclusion, I welcome the possibility of implementing the critical incident technique in the formation of novel teachers, even in the updating of the old ones. Its potential benefits would reach the whole scholar community –teachers, students, parents, helping to bridge gaps and to achieve better results in the teaching-learning process.
Reference
Fernández González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N., Medina Pérez, M. (2003) Los incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del Profesorado de Secundaria en Ciencias de la Naturaleza. Revista Universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17(1), 101-112. Universidad de Zaragoza: Zaragoza, España. Retrieved August 22, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/index.php?id=54
In my experience as a teacher, I must admit that I have not received enough training to be prepared to handle or even, foresee problematic situations in the classroom. The mismatch between what I have been told and what I encountered at school promoted a clear divide between theory and practice.
I vividly remember the good old days at college. With practices that flowed smoothly mainly because the group of fifth graders assigned to me were accustomed to student-teachers converging from colleges all over downtown. Those children extraordinarily contributed to make my stay great and nice to recall.
But after graduating, the ideals of a dream class vanished abruptly. Once I entered the true school world, difficulties arose. Poor classroom management and inadequate strategies to handle a group of standard scholars were my weak points. And learning through hard experience was what finally afforded me knowledge.
Yet, pioneer concern on high quality education in teacher formation and exploration of new methods are gaining field in the educational scene. The findings of critical incidents research work -analysis of negative events and further applications- propose solutions and prevent problems in classroom contexts.
Fernández and Fernandez (1994, cited in Fernández González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N. and Medina Pérez, M., 2003) highlighted the benefits of the adoption of this method since it allows the analysis of problematic situations in the classroom, within a controlled and secure atmosphere, like in a laboratory.
Issues like situation-context, incident version, factors, causes and possible solutions were evaluated. The study report aimed to foster reflection upon teaching practices, classroom incidents and awareness of the potential advantages that the application of this technique could bring about in the area of education.
Professional growth is another important issue to be considered. I agree that teachers need to learn more so as to sharpen their skills and improve their performance. Learning is a never ending process, thus, I have committed myself to get a university degree. I believe that this will favor my teaching practice greatly.
Though even nowadays, there seems to be a general consensus to restrain teaching to the traditional idea that to teach is only necessary to know the subject well (Gil, 1991, Torre, 1997, cited Fernandez Gonzalez et al, 2003). More often, the assumption that once a novel teacher graduates learning is over remains.
However, some authors like Tejada (2000, cited in Fernandez Gonzalez et al, 2003) point out the relevance of creating awareness of the demand of a new profile of teachers. The new requirements will involve: observation skills, self-reflection and being able to make suitable rapid decisions when in trouble.
All this can be safely achieved through effective training; today’s classroom reality suggests that teachers should be equipped with more than formal knowledge of a subject. At this respect, teachers –from all areas, gender and age- should give more attention to professional integrative development.
In conclusion, I welcome the possibility of implementing the critical incident technique in the formation of novel teachers, even in the updating of the old ones. Its potential benefits would reach the whole scholar community –teachers, students, parents, helping to bridge gaps and to achieve better results in the teaching-learning process.
Reference
Fernández González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N., Medina Pérez, M. (2003) Los incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del Profesorado de Secundaria en Ciencias de la Naturaleza. Revista Universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17(1), 101-112. Universidad de Zaragoza: Zaragoza, España. Retrieved August 22, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/index.php?id=54
Feb 13, 2010
Critical incidents: description and possible applications in education
The critical incident technique (Flanagan, 1954) involves a method of gathering empiric information about certain human behavior. The procedure requires data collection of relevant events, in given conditions. The study findings may be applied to solve problems in a practical way and even, to nurture large-minded theories in Psychology.
What is an incident? It can be described as any single distinct event performed by human beings. An incident allows further analysis and drawing logical conclusions. Inferences can be made on the basis of empirical evidence (Flanagan, 1954) so that positive or negative effects can be easily predicted in the future which is one of its major contributions.
Because critical incidents demand strict objectivity from the observers, as well as accuracy and precision, judgments should be based on reliable observations of critical incidents without mediation of any kind of personal or emotional influence over the outcome. Flanagan (1954) considers critical incidents as a flexible system plausible of any kind of adaptations.
Formulation of general aims of an activity in order to provide goal-orientation and detailed descriptions of the objectives to pursue is a pre requisite. One of the main issues that involve the formulation of the general aims is to achieve general consensus among the authorities, and even to foster general acceptance of the participants in the activity.
Thus, general aims imply brief explanations, provided by authorities of a field, about something that intends to reach achievement. General aims formulate a functional description of an activity. Therefore, given that, the question is: Who defines the general aim? A group of people who evidence real knowledge of a particular area of study carries out the task.
The following points serve to settle the general aim of an activity: shaping the object of study, defining the purpose of the activity and drawing an outline of the general aim of the activity. Once these requirements have been fulfilled, the next decisive step is to provide the reporting personnel -observers- with precise and detailed instructions.
Next, facts about the group of people to be studied by the observers are reported in the instructions. Given that, critical incidents are regarded as a very effective form of obtaining measurable factual data. The process of data collection demands at least four components that can be summarized as follows:
a) Delimitation of the situation to be analyzed –location, people, conditions and activities;
b) Degree of pertinence of the activity to be observed to the purpose of the general aim;
c) Level of significance of consequences, impact of incident observation over general aim;
d) Selection of the observers considering level of expertise and training;
Four procedures describe data collection (Flanagan, 1954, Collecting the data section, para. 7): interviews, where the observed group receives a brief explanation describing the study process; group interviews, reduces time and costs personnel; questionnaires procedure, with large groups and record forms, which are always written.
On considering the possibility of collecting data in the educational field, the most appropriate procedure to do so would be the record forms (Flanagan, 1954, Collecting the data section, para. 7). In particular, the method variation that comprises a written report of the general standard behaviours in the classroom.
Further discussion of the data collected provides a clear resource: application of the findings to the practical solution of problems. Simple as it may seem, discussion of these issues facilitates the ground for making inferences, comparisons and mainly, increasing the “usefulness of the data” as Flanagan (1954) observed (Analyzing the data section, para. 3).
Areas of application (Flanagan, 1954)
Measures of typical performance (criteria), (Uses of the critical incident technique section, para. 3), which was applied by the American Institute for Research, American military forces, the American Psychological Association , the Educational Research Corporation and the Harvard University Graduate School of Education, American Council on Education.
Measures of proficiency, standard samples, (para. 11), which was sponsored by the National Research Council Committee on Aviation Psychology, United States Air Force and the Civil Aeronautics Administration, the United States Air Force Human Re-sources Research Center, Air Force pilot instructors and the Office of Naval Research.
Personnel: training (para. 18) led mainly by American military forces; selection and classification which was sponsored by the United States Air Force School of Aviation Medicine; job design and purification that was carried out at the American Institute for Research (para. 29) and operating procedures (para. 31).
Equipment design (para. 35) which was conducted by the American Institute for Research. Motivation and leadership, attitudes (para. 39), a study sponsored by the Air Force’s Human Resources Research Center. Counseling and Psychotherapy (para. 42) explored at the University of Pittsburgh.
Equipment design and motivational/leadership studies could be the educational areas that would benefit more from the application of the critical incident technique. The first issue may improve the quality of teaching/learning styles. Educational policymakers should note that teaching material available at schools are not always appropriate or in good conditions.
Considering the area of motivation and leadership in education, the critical incident technique would redefine teacher’s profile; i.e. which are teacher’s motivations? Why teachers complain about school? Do all these factors exert an impact on the quality of education? Is leadership part of the professional development or not? Is management part of professional growth?
In conclusion, the implementation of such a new trend like the critical incident technique arises more questions than answers yet. Little is known about serious educational programs that consider this innovative tool. However, in the light of its potential uses, it is likely that this technique could soon be applied to the educational scene, one of the most relevant fields for human development and growth.
Reference
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51 (4). Retrieved September 19, 2009 from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
What is an incident? It can be described as any single distinct event performed by human beings. An incident allows further analysis and drawing logical conclusions. Inferences can be made on the basis of empirical evidence (Flanagan, 1954) so that positive or negative effects can be easily predicted in the future which is one of its major contributions.
Because critical incidents demand strict objectivity from the observers, as well as accuracy and precision, judgments should be based on reliable observations of critical incidents without mediation of any kind of personal or emotional influence over the outcome. Flanagan (1954) considers critical incidents as a flexible system plausible of any kind of adaptations.
Formulation of general aims of an activity in order to provide goal-orientation and detailed descriptions of the objectives to pursue is a pre requisite. One of the main issues that involve the formulation of the general aims is to achieve general consensus among the authorities, and even to foster general acceptance of the participants in the activity.
Thus, general aims imply brief explanations, provided by authorities of a field, about something that intends to reach achievement. General aims formulate a functional description of an activity. Therefore, given that, the question is: Who defines the general aim? A group of people who evidence real knowledge of a particular area of study carries out the task.
The following points serve to settle the general aim of an activity: shaping the object of study, defining the purpose of the activity and drawing an outline of the general aim of the activity. Once these requirements have been fulfilled, the next decisive step is to provide the reporting personnel -observers- with precise and detailed instructions.
Next, facts about the group of people to be studied by the observers are reported in the instructions. Given that, critical incidents are regarded as a very effective form of obtaining measurable factual data. The process of data collection demands at least four components that can be summarized as follows:
a) Delimitation of the situation to be analyzed –location, people, conditions and activities;
b) Degree of pertinence of the activity to be observed to the purpose of the general aim;
c) Level of significance of consequences, impact of incident observation over general aim;
d) Selection of the observers considering level of expertise and training;
Four procedures describe data collection (Flanagan, 1954, Collecting the data section, para. 7): interviews, where the observed group receives a brief explanation describing the study process; group interviews, reduces time and costs personnel; questionnaires procedure, with large groups and record forms, which are always written.
On considering the possibility of collecting data in the educational field, the most appropriate procedure to do so would be the record forms (Flanagan, 1954, Collecting the data section, para. 7). In particular, the method variation that comprises a written report of the general standard behaviours in the classroom.
Further discussion of the data collected provides a clear resource: application of the findings to the practical solution of problems. Simple as it may seem, discussion of these issues facilitates the ground for making inferences, comparisons and mainly, increasing the “usefulness of the data” as Flanagan (1954) observed (Analyzing the data section, para. 3).
Areas of application (Flanagan, 1954)
Measures of typical performance (criteria), (Uses of the critical incident technique section, para. 3), which was applied by the American Institute for Research, American military forces, the American Psychological Association , the Educational Research Corporation and the Harvard University Graduate School of Education, American Council on Education.
Measures of proficiency, standard samples, (para. 11), which was sponsored by the National Research Council Committee on Aviation Psychology, United States Air Force and the Civil Aeronautics Administration, the United States Air Force Human Re-sources Research Center, Air Force pilot instructors and the Office of Naval Research.
Personnel: training (para. 18) led mainly by American military forces; selection and classification which was sponsored by the United States Air Force School of Aviation Medicine; job design and purification that was carried out at the American Institute for Research (para. 29) and operating procedures (para. 31).
Equipment design (para. 35) which was conducted by the American Institute for Research. Motivation and leadership, attitudes (para. 39), a study sponsored by the Air Force’s Human Resources Research Center. Counseling and Psychotherapy (para. 42) explored at the University of Pittsburgh.
Equipment design and motivational/leadership studies could be the educational areas that would benefit more from the application of the critical incident technique. The first issue may improve the quality of teaching/learning styles. Educational policymakers should note that teaching material available at schools are not always appropriate or in good conditions.
Considering the area of motivation and leadership in education, the critical incident technique would redefine teacher’s profile; i.e. which are teacher’s motivations? Why teachers complain about school? Do all these factors exert an impact on the quality of education? Is leadership part of the professional development or not? Is management part of professional growth?
In conclusion, the implementation of such a new trend like the critical incident technique arises more questions than answers yet. Little is known about serious educational programs that consider this innovative tool. However, in the light of its potential uses, it is likely that this technique could soon be applied to the educational scene, one of the most relevant fields for human development and growth.
Reference
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51 (4). Retrieved September 19, 2009 from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
Sep 25, 2009
Reading and writing theory
Purpose: To summarize the characteristics of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) vocabulary in connection to the reading-writing relationship theory.
Thesis statement: Reading can improve the process of learning to write and writing to learn.
Audience: Researchers, teachers, writers, academic students.
1. Martin (1976) classification (as cited in Pintos, 2008, p.34).
A. Research-process vocabulary
1. verbs, nouns
B. Analysis vocabulary
2. high-frequency verbs
C. Evaluation vocabulary
3. adjectives, adverbs
2. Nuttal (1996) prerequisites (as cited in Pintos, 2008, p.35)
A. Code sharing
B. L1 schemata activation
1. prior knowledge: problem solving
C. Topics, preview
1. brainstorm
2. debate
3. Conclusions.
A. Learning to read as learning to write
B. Learning to write as learning to read
C. Recognition of written language, social use
D. Promotion of language acquisition
E. Promotion of advanced literacy
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. [PDF document]. Retrieved August 15, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730
Thesis statement: Reading can improve the process of learning to write and writing to learn.
Audience: Researchers, teachers, writers, academic students.
1. Martin (1976) classification (as cited in Pintos, 2008, p.34).
A. Research-process vocabulary
1. verbs, nouns
B. Analysis vocabulary
2. high-frequency verbs
C. Evaluation vocabulary
3. adjectives, adverbs
2. Nuttal (1996) prerequisites (as cited in Pintos, 2008, p.35)
A. Code sharing
B. L1 schemata activation
1. prior knowledge: problem solving
C. Topics, preview
1. brainstorm
2. debate
3. Conclusions.
A. Learning to read as learning to write
B. Learning to write as learning to read
C. Recognition of written language, social use
D. Promotion of language acquisition
E. Promotion of advanced literacy
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. [PDF document]. Retrieved August 15, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730
Steps to academic literacy
The viewpoint that there is connection between reading and writing, and that it is structured in the first language, is supported by the Language 1 (L1) -Language 2 (L2) relationship theory. According to Ferris and Hedgcock (1998, as cited in Pintos, 2008, p.33) skills involving reading strategies tend to favor the development of writing skills. One of the major concerns of the teaching-learning practice seems to be the integration of reading into writing so as to consolidate the abilities of the students and help them master academic literacy.
In 1985, Bloor (as cited in Pintos, 2008, p.33) defined four different approaches to address academic skills in reading:
Psychological approach (Bloor, 1985, as cited in Pintos, 2008, p.33) which involves exercises designed for simple word recognition and interpretation, i.e. rehabilitation of temporal memory-loss patients. This programme generally includes board games like a word-picture domino or flashcards/pictures with captions to help patients recover their semantic abilities.
Linguistic Approach (Bloor, 1985, as cited in Pintos, 2008, p.33) with reference to a series of grammatical exercises involving practice of the rules of a given language. A real life example of this could be the act of reading a newspaper article, for reading-comprehension abilities require grammatical/linguistic knowledge of the language so as to be able to grasp meaning.
Content-Oriented Approach (Bloor, 1985, as cited in Pintos, 2008, p.33) the fact of the matter is reading for a specific purpose: picture yourself when back home with a brand-new personal computer and you read the manual to figure out how to install it. You will surely scan the text quickly till you get to part that contains the relevant information you were looking for. In this example, the purpose of reading is truly specific: reading to cover one’s needs.
Pedagogically-Oriented Approach (Bloor, 1985, as cited in Pintos, 2008, p.33) where students choose freely what to read and, even, they make choices as the speed at which the reading is done. An example of this is clearly shown in a public library, where readers or library members can read/borrow books and enjoy the process.
To conclude, it seems that the best course of action for the development of academic reading would be to make students interact with all the different approaches mentioned above. Indeed, construction of meaning involves the same cognitive processes for both reading and writing. The achievement of advanced literacy skills suggests that teachers should focus much more onto the connection between reading-writing processes to accomplish these goals.
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective. [PDF document]. Retrieved August 15, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730
In 1985, Bloor (as cited in Pintos, 2008, p.33) defined four different approaches to address academic skills in reading:
Psychological approach (Bloor, 1985, as cited in Pintos, 2008, p.33) which involves exercises designed for simple word recognition and interpretation, i.e. rehabilitation of temporal memory-loss patients. This programme generally includes board games like a word-picture domino or flashcards/pictures with captions to help patients recover their semantic abilities.
Linguistic Approach (Bloor, 1985, as cited in Pintos, 2008, p.33) with reference to a series of grammatical exercises involving practice of the rules of a given language. A real life example of this could be the act of reading a newspaper article, for reading-comprehension abilities require grammatical/linguistic knowledge of the language so as to be able to grasp meaning.
Content-Oriented Approach (Bloor, 1985, as cited in Pintos, 2008, p.33) the fact of the matter is reading for a specific purpose: picture yourself when back home with a brand-new personal computer and you read the manual to figure out how to install it. You will surely scan the text quickly till you get to part that contains the relevant information you were looking for. In this example, the purpose of reading is truly specific: reading to cover one’s needs.
Pedagogically-Oriented Approach (Bloor, 1985, as cited in Pintos, 2008, p.33) where students choose freely what to read and, even, they make choices as the speed at which the reading is done. An example of this is clearly shown in a public library, where readers or library members can read/borrow books and enjoy the process.
To conclude, it seems that the best course of action for the development of academic reading would be to make students interact with all the different approaches mentioned above. Indeed, construction of meaning involves the same cognitive processes for both reading and writing. The achievement of advanced literacy skills suggests that teachers should focus much more onto the connection between reading-writing processes to accomplish these goals.
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective. [PDF document]. Retrieved August 15, 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2730
New policies in school´s instructional capacity
Howley and Howley’s (2005) article about promotion of high quality teaching in rural areas explores the impact of professional development on the teaching practice. The field research was sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES), from the United States of America Department of Education. This paper explains the use of certain academic linguistic conventions such as special terminology and discourse markers.
To begin with, policymakers will be defined as: people who are responsible for the choice of a plan of action to follow in relation to a course of studies. This includes the goals to achieve, the educational values and the profile of the graduates.
Thus, in order to achieve these objectives, policymakers implement professional development instruction programs for teachers, which involve setting out educational policies and special arrangements to ensure high quality teaching-learning practices.
Furthermore, student achievement refers to measurable and effective results in the acquisition of educational knowledge by students. This concept involves the accomplishment of explicit goals stated in the course curriculum.
With regards to discourse markers, the ones that appeared in the text will be listed, according to their function:
- Constrast: however, nevertheless, but, despite, alternatively, (even) though, arguably.
- Structuring: fist, second.
-Adding: furthermore, in addition, moreover.
-Logical consequence: because so, as a result, because of, logically, grounded in (...).
-To introduce examples: for example, as (...) suggests.
- Summing up: in conclusion, after all.
-Degree: somewhat.
- Parallelism: at the same time.
-For emphasis: clearly, in fact.
When Howley and Howley (2005) contend that “Grounded in management approaches (...) improvement strategies involve educators (…) an ongoing process of assessment and classroom level reform” (Data-based improvement section), they basically refer to the theoretical background that supports this research study.
All things considered, this paper indicates the political concern to foster core competence in educators. Clearly, it aims at promotion of skills development that improves teaching competence in order to increase student’s achievement of educational goals. The use of specific vocabulary and discourse markers in the paper exemplifies its purpose.
Reference
Howley, A., & Howley, C. B. (2005). High-quality teaching: Providing for rural teacher’s professional development. The Rural Educator. Retrieved August 15, 2009, from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4126/is_200501/ai_n13591361
To begin with, policymakers will be defined as: people who are responsible for the choice of a plan of action to follow in relation to a course of studies. This includes the goals to achieve, the educational values and the profile of the graduates.
Thus, in order to achieve these objectives, policymakers implement professional development instruction programs for teachers, which involve setting out educational policies and special arrangements to ensure high quality teaching-learning practices.
Furthermore, student achievement refers to measurable and effective results in the acquisition of educational knowledge by students. This concept involves the accomplishment of explicit goals stated in the course curriculum.
With regards to discourse markers, the ones that appeared in the text will be listed, according to their function:
- Constrast: however, nevertheless, but, despite, alternatively, (even) though, arguably.
- Structuring: fist, second.
-Adding: furthermore, in addition, moreover.
-Logical consequence: because so, as a result, because of, logically, grounded in (...).
-To introduce examples: for example, as (...) suggests.
- Summing up: in conclusion, after all.
-Degree: somewhat.
- Parallelism: at the same time.
-For emphasis: clearly, in fact.
When Howley and Howley (2005) contend that “Grounded in management approaches (...) improvement strategies involve educators (…) an ongoing process of assessment and classroom level reform” (Data-based improvement section), they basically refer to the theoretical background that supports this research study.
All things considered, this paper indicates the political concern to foster core competence in educators. Clearly, it aims at promotion of skills development that improves teaching competence in order to increase student’s achievement of educational goals. The use of specific vocabulary and discourse markers in the paper exemplifies its purpose.
Reference
Howley, A., & Howley, C. B. (2005). High-quality teaching: Providing for rural teacher’s professional development. The Rural Educator. Retrieved August 15, 2009, from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4126/is_200501/ai_n13591361
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